Gebrehiwot, M., Elbakidze, M., Lidestav, G., Sandewall, M., Angelstam, P., & Kassa, H. (2016). Global Environmental Change, 10(3), 221–232. Male headed- households tended to have better food security than female-headed households. All respondents involved provided consent to participate in the survey. (Eds.). Springer, New York. Von Braun, J. PubMed Google Scholar. Fishing farmers: Fishing, livelihood diversification and poverty in rural Laos. Error bars indicate standard error. Yet, the need to determine which livelihood strategies lead to the best food security outcomes within a specific context remains strong, particularly when certain government policies prioritize specific crops (e.g. Coates, J., Swindale, A., & Bilinsky, P. (2007). Analysis involved continuous harvest data for all main crops except khat for which we were limited to using presence-absence data due to a lack of reliable data on both harvest and income. These two strategies with the best food security outcomes notably included three food crops, with the difference of the first strategy having two cash crops and the second having only one cash crop. Agricultural Economics, 28(1), 39–50. All authors declare no conflict of interest involved in this work. Supporting households to pursue livelihood strategies with diverse food and cash crops thus should be cognizant of the need to address shortages in capital assets. By international standards, food security is low (Ethiopia CSA and WFP 2014) particularly during the lean season from June to August every year. No. 1. In the Bolivian Andes, production of diverse food crops for subsistence was found to be a plausible approach for improving household and children’s diets (Jones 2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-00883-x, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-00883-x, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in 2b) were consistent with the observed characteristics of the clusters, namely that the cash crop coffee and food crops (i. e. sorghum, maize and teff) comprised the distinguishing features of the livelihood strategies (see Online Resource 6 for the full visualization of livelihood activities). We emphasize that, like all regression models, this analysis helped to uncover significant associations between livelihood strategies and capital assets, but was not a direct test of causal links. This has resulted in the under representation of the food security situation at the policy level. The gaba is a larger market occurring once a week, involving both men and women. For small-scale farmers, food self-sufficiency through food crop production was found to be the best approach for assuring food security, even when food markets were present. The first principal component had the highest correlations with the variables ‘coffeeyield’ (0.85), ‘maizeyield’ (0.35), and ‘sorghumyield’ (0.27). Food Security, 7(3), 535–554. IDB-WP-567. Plot of means of HFIAS scores by livelihood strategy. (2016) The Second Growth and Transformation Plan. Social and cultural perceptions regarding food security and health in the departments of Bolivar and La Guajira, in the Caribbean region of Colombia. Google Scholar. Secure Livelihoods Research Consortium, Overseas Development Institute, London. 2016; Vongvisouk et al. Nutrition security is attained by individuals when the body tissues are exposed to optimal amounts of nutrients and other essential substances. URL: http://www.fao.org/ethiopia/fao-in-ethiopia/ethiopia-at-a-glance/en/. The second and third sections were guided by the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework. Venables, W. N., & Ripley, B. D. (2002) Modern applied statistics with S. Fourth edition. This is in line with findings from gender and development research that examined systematic inequality around access and control of capital assets (Quisumbing et al. Moreover, the ability of households to engage in a type of livelihood strategy is influenced by the types of capital assets they have access to (Scoones 1998; Rakodi 1999). The program envisages that target communities are able to determine, create and utilize productive assets and diversified and sustainable food production systems, receive conditional in kind or cash based transfers to address immediate food consumption gaps and receive comprehensive package of nutrition interventions including nutrition education and skills … (2011). Furthermore, food security was not only influenced by livelihood strategies, but also by other household characteristics such as gender and educational attainment of the household head. O’Brien, K., & Leichenko, R. (2000). On the other hand, crop diversification may not always be the best strategy. We asked about all types of livelihood activities to determine the composition of livelihood strategies. (2006). 2014) on the grounds that it will improve food security through economic growth. World Development, 27(12), 2021–2044. For example, they were more involved in learning with other farmers through informal exchange of information and knowledge. Fafchamps, M. (1992). Article  2d, 3 and Online Resource 8). st We look at various livelihoods support programs that can be used in disaster settings. Development Policy Review, 17(3), 315–342. 2007; Maxwell et al. PubMed Central  Food Security and Strategies to Alleviate Food Shortage. economic, human, natural, physical, and social). The fourth section on food security was a modified version of the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) (Coates et al. Quisumbing, A. R., Rubin, D., Manfre, C., Waithanji, E., van den Bold, M., Olney, D., Johnson, N., & Meinzen-Dick, R. (2015). The plot indicates that capital assets differed in their association with the livelihood strategies (p < 0.01). Such mixed outcomes across different contexts suggest that pathways towards food security need to be grounded in a contextualized understanding of existing livelihood strategies. Kidanewold, B. 3. There were other livelihood activities in the area including the cultivation of home gardens, production of legumes, production of milk, cheese, butter and honey for household consumption and the local market, selling firewood, selling eucalyptus trees, and engagement in farm labor and non-farm labor for wages. A generalized linear model showed that livelihood strategies were significantly associated with food security outcomes. The objective of this study was to determine the livelihood strategies and the coping mechanisms used by rural households in Abela Lida Frison, E., Cherfas, J., & Hodgkin, T. (2011). Gender, assets, and market-oriented agriculture: Learning from high-value crop and livestock projects in Africa and Asia. Lavers, T. (2017). Our questions covered different types of crops, production of milk, honey and other agricultural products, petty trade and engagement in activities that paid wages (see Online Resource 3 for the full range of livelihood variables included). Food security is closely related to, but not synonymous with, nutrition security and health. However, consequences are not always positive particularly for the poor; and diverging outcomes have been observed for different community groups. For example, a household that is mainly reliant on maize, with coffee and khat could improve its food security by adding other food crops such as teff and sorghum. However, under conditions of weaker market barriers, households were likely to choose cash crops. The economics of poverty traps and persistent poverty: An asset-based approach. Malawian households were likely to focus on food crops when they expected food insecurity and malnutrition. We then returned to every kebele to complete the survey in the second half of the field work. Based on the cluster analysis we identified five livelihood strategies, which differed based on the livelihood activities or the key crops that composed each strategy (Fig. Sustainability, 6, 1191–1202. However, in most studies it remains unclear whether the positive effects of crop diversification resulted directly from consumption of the food crops, or through selling them. Against this context of changing livelihoods and government incentives, our objectives were to (1) develop an empirically grounded characterization of existing livelihood strategies in the study area; (2) determine how different types of capital asset are associated with different livelihood strategies; and (3) examine how the identified livelihood strategies differ in terms of food security outcomes. The length of an arrow indicates the strength of correlation. Materials and Methods The final questionnaire consisted of four sections, namely: (1) general household characteristics; (2) livelihoods; (3) capital assets; and (4) food security (see Online Resource 2). We also describe what food security entails and ways to assess it. Agricultural Economics, 33(3), 351–363. In this context, diversified livelihood strategies primarily through having a mix of food crops for subsistence, in combination with cash crops for income, are important for food security. 2013). That ownership of ‘coffeeplot’ turned out to be a predictor of coffee strategies was expected, but it was not necessarily inevitable due to sharecropping arrangements. Sustainable rural livelihoods: Practical concepts for the 21 We therefore included ‘coffeeplot’ in our examination of the links between capital assets and livelihood strategies. We conjecture that for households in southwest Ethiopia, the feature of diverse crops in the livelihood strategies may be motivated not so much by economic profitability and capital asset accumulation but by the basic need to ensure households’ direct access to food. Livelihoods can be made up of a range of agricultural and off-farm activities that … Household food, nutrition and income security can be enhanced by following three intervention strategies: livelihood promotion (improving households' resilience for meeting food and other basic needs on a sustainable basis), livelihood protection (preventing an erosion of productive assets or assisting in their recovery) and livelihood provisioning (meeting food and other … Shifting cultivation stability and change: Contrasting pathways of land use and livelihood change in Laos. Salazar, L., Gonzales-Flores, M., Aramburu, J., & Winters, P. (2015) Food security and productivity impacts of technology adoption in small subsistence farmers in Bolivia. a Distribution of households by livelihood strategies in the ordination space of the PCA. Typically food security is thought of as being related to availability and access of foodstuffs. The dissimilarity between these identified local livelihood strategies and the strategies endorsed and supported by policies is notable (Arce 2003) because evidence on the food security benefits of livelihood shifts to cash crop production has been varied and conflicting. We thank Feyera Senbeta for facilitating our research and helpful discussions. 2017) causing serious disadvantage among female heads of households. & Melesse, A. M. (2014) Surface water and groundwater resources of Ethiopia: Potentials and challenges of water resources development. 2011; Martin et al. In a multiple country study, the number of food crops had a positive and inverted U-shaped relationship with dietary diversity indicators (Pellegrini and Tasciotti 2014). Salazar et al. Food security and livelihoods linkages.Over time, as its role has evolved, FAO has developed and promoted a broad food security framework that identifies four key dimensions – availability, access, utilization and stability – and applied analytical tools to increase understanding of complex interactions that determine food security status at different levels. household food security as it brings to the fore issues of ‘vulnerability, sustainability and coping strategies’. This module illustrates how and what livelihoods strategies families use to cope with a crisis. Our study identified five types of livelihood strategies following a gradient in composition of food and cash crops. Create linkages between the private and public partnerships in providing quality FSL intervention. The FAO estimates that a total of 925 million people were undernourished in 2010, compared with 1023 billion in 2009. %PDF-1.5 %���� World Bank. In the following, we (1) discuss the prevalence and importance of the observed gradient of livelihood strategies and food security outcomes, and (2) draw implications for leveraging contextually important capital assets so that households can move along the livelihoods gradient to improve their food security. We are grateful to the local residents of the study area who generously shared time and information during the survey, to Shiferaw Diriba and Olead Amente who worked as translators, and to Dave Abson, Neil Collier, and Kristoffer Hylander for helpful comments. Food access is determined in part by availability, while utilization is determined in part by access. The widespread practice of sharecropping, including in coffee production, meant that there were households that harvested coffee but did not own coffee plots. Food Security (2015). Agricultural commercialization and food security in rural economies: Malawian experience. Food security is a measure of the availability of food and individuals' ability to access it.According the United Nations’ Committee on World Food Security, food security is defined as the means that all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their food preferences and dietary needs for an active and healthy life. The organization will align its activities around food security to SDG 1:to eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty, and participate in the implementation big 4 agenda on food security as prioritized by the Government. Assessing the food security outcomes of industrial crop expansion in smallholder settings: Insights from cotton production in northern Ghana and sugarcane production in Central Ethiopia. In summary, livelihood strategies with coffee were associated with having access to coffee plots. The production diversity of subsistence farms in the Bolivian Andes is associated with the quality of child feeding practices as measured by a validated summary feeding index. The x-axis shows livelihood activities in the study area. 2015). Subsistence-based diversification strategies also do not primarily facilitate income generation. In addition to the survey, we also took field notes to record qualitative observations concerning the broader context such as physical infrastructure, market access, and livelihood problems, and gained insights from informal conversations with local residents. Food security, livelihood vulnerability, and state interventions in upland northern Vietnam. That is, dietary diversity increased with crop diversity up to a point and then began to decrease. Journal of Agrarian Change, 17(1), 188–207. For the third section, we considered capital assets as the building blocks from which households constructed livelihood strategies. De Haan, L., & Zoomers, A. Overseas Development Institute, London. This was consistent with the multinomial logistic regression, which tested for relationships between livelihood strategies and capital assets and identified significant relationships with ‘fieldsize’ (p < 0.001), ‘coffeeplot’ (p < 0.001), ‘livestock’ (p = 0.005), and ‘farmtools’ (p = 0.03) (Table 5). Institute of Development Studies, UK. Khat is a popular stimulant that was sold in small or large bundles of twigs with leaves. Double exposure: Assessing the impacts of climate change within the context of economic globalization. The seminal work by Chambers and colleagues (Chambers 1987; Chambers and Ghildyal 1985; Chambers and Conway 1992) emphasized placing people at the center of scientific inquiry into poverty, food security, and environmental degradation and gave rise to livelihoods thinking. The survey tool was translated into the local language Aafan Oromo and back-translated to English to ensure that the integrity of the original meaning was maintained. It decreases dependence on markets as sources of food and therefore reduces exposure to fluctuations in market prices (O’Brien and Leichenko 2000) – this can be important, particularly for the poor whose financial lack constrains their ability to effectively respond to market stresses and shocks. The final livelihood strategy with the lowest food security had only maize as food crop, and coffee and khat (‘one food crop, coffee and khat’, n = 44). Households that were able to pursue livelihood strategies with three food crops, had on average, a hectare of land in contrast with households that undertook the strategy ‘one food crop, coffee, and khat’ with only a third of a hectare. Google Scholar. Canadian Journal of Development Studies/Revue canadienne d’études du développement, 35(2), 211–227. UK: Institute of Development Studies. Achterbosch, T., van Berkum, S., & Meijrink, G. (2014) Cash crops and food security: contributions to income, livelihood risk and agricultural innovation. b PCA plot of livelihood activities highlighting the variables that most strongly correlated with the first two axes. Aisa O. Manlosa. Farm production diversity is associated with greater household dietary diversity in Malawi: Findings from nationally representative data. For example, the cash crop sugarcane was found to have a positive effect on food security in Ethiopia, but cotton production in Ghana resulted in lower food security among growers (Lam et al. The Phongsaly Alternative Livelihood and Food Security (PALAFS) project will support the efforts of the Government of Lao PDR and former opium poppy cultivating communities in sustaining opium elimination through a community centred approach that addresses alternative sustainable livelihoods development, food R package version 2.3–4. Based on the observed farming practices in the study area, diversified production of both food and cash crops should be encouraged to improve food security. Njuki, J., Parkins, J. R., & Kaler, A. - 207.246.86.230. 1 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 4 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 7 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 10 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 13 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 16 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 19 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 22 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 25 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 28 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 31 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 34 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 37 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 40 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>>>> endobj 43 0 obj<>stream ‘three food crops, coffee and khat’ and ‘one food crop, coffee and khat’) suggests that households that tend to be more food insecure could theoretically increase their food security by increasing the diversity of food crops they produce (Fig. International Forestry Review, 13(3), 265–274. Cultivating cacao: Implications of sun-grown cacao on local food security and environmental sustainability. A., Degefa, S., Gasparatos, A., & Saito, O. Longer arrows also suggest stronger correlations with PCA axes. Access to credit was also limited. For smallholder farming households, two plausible pathways of crop production have been advocated to increase food security, namely: (1) cash crop production (e.g. Household food insecurity (HFI) is the result of poverty, poor health of the household member or members, and suboptimal livelihood and household management strategies (6). 4. The survey was implemented such that the first half of the sample in each kebele was completed during the first half of the field work. Most notably, the field size that households were entitled to, turned out to be strongly correlated with livelihood strategies. Prior to data collection, the survey protocol was formally cleared by the ethics committee of Leuphana University Lueneburg. Sumner, D., Christie, M. A., & Boulakia, S. (2017). Ellis (2000) discussed the importance of livelihoods diversification in a context characterized by precarious conditions and a need for survival. Between two months and five months had passed since the end of the lean season from the first household to the last household surveyed. Maxwell, S., & Fernando, A. Policies that seek to promote food security of smallholder farming households would do well to recognize and support the complementarities between food crops and cash crops rather than impose a narrowly framed economic growth narrative that can potentially erode these complementarities. (2003). The strategies involving three food crops were associated with having larger fields. This study examined the livelihood strategies and food security situation of rural households around Derba Cement Factory by taking a randomly selected sample of 215 heads of farm households from three rural kebeles. Sayer, J., Ghazoul, J., Nelson, P., & Boedhihartono, A. K. (2012). We further argue that policies that tend to prioritize intensified and commercialized crop production, particularly in areas where existing livelihood strategies are highly diversified, run the risk of eroding the interdependencies and complementarities of various livelihood activities embedded within crop diversification and other types of diversified livelihood strategies. Agricultural biodiversity is essential for a sustainable improvement in food and nutrition security. Supporting farming households to shift towards livelihood strategies associated with better food security outcomes should consider the elements embedded in households’ current strategies and support them in accessing those capital assets they need to expand the sphere of their means and goals (Rakodi 1999). Vongvisouk, T., Mertz, O., Thongmanivong, S., Heinimann, A., & Phanvilay, K. (2014). Here, questions related to various capital asset variables belonging to one of five capital asset types (i.e. A better understanding of the food security outcomes associated with different livelihood strategies is particularly important in semi-subsistence landscapes. Land, 7(1), 24. Particularly, a high number of food crops in a strategy was linked with relatively high food security. Moreover, Fig. The crops coffee and khat were the main sources of cash. (2008) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. (2018). World Development, 17(11), 1677–1708. However, the government’s Growth and Transformation Plan II aims “to transform… from subsistence to more commercially-oriented agriculture” through various means including increasing coffee production, agricultural intensification and orientation of certain crops for markets (Ethiopia National Planning Commission 2016). (2016). (2014) Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis. Article  For the variables that were selected for inclusion in the analysis, we identified cells with missing data and applied an imputation process called multiple imputation chained equations through the ‘mice’ package in R (Van Buuren and Groothuis-Oudshoorn 2011). A., & Adeyefa, S. A. This suggests that including khat as a binomial variable did not unduly influence the results. Belsky, J., & Siebert, S. (2003). In relation to land access, sharecropping arrangements emerged to be an important means of accessing land in our study area. Global Food Security, 1(2), 114–119. 2013). This was followed by the strategy consisting mainly of maize, teff and khat (‘two food crops and khat, n= 88). Chambers, R. (1987) Sustainable livelihoods, environment, and development: putting poor rural people first. H�|VpTW��9��&!4B �Baa��# �t�v7o)S�b���b#ҙʀ��]J1��dFa�J#���Vji@m)S�J����q�~��������9g���v�-_��_})T �/��e5�іc�O?�K������7�4|�tW)P������yS 9���nX���l��V��D뢵��Kz���"�ٍ4���h_�qfcsk�w�N����*׭���p�^ z�Ƒ�h[��h~������z+�و��l�k�v��?z`u��!�Ȓ����į�/!����U}� A9�V����/y���g�݁/5��3~L�D�2f���B�C%��m\dh�*��y. Within government circles, this trajectory from subsistence to commercial orientation is perceived as promising potential benefits for food security. The challenge of small land holdings is likely to further increase due to rapid population growth, with smaller parcels of land being inherited by each subsequent generation (Gebrehiwot et al. Ordination plots of livelihood strategies with associated capital assets and food security outcomes. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan. 2015). Common livelihood problems such as lack of farmland, livestock and labor were typically addressed through sharecropping arrangements. Torkelsson, A. 2d). Our study showed that combinations of food crops and cash crops, particularly diverse food crops, were important for the food security of households. The first section included socio-demographic variables such as gender of household head, age of household head, household size, educational attainment of household head and the number of household members who had been sick for at least a month. rural livelihood and food security Nov 12, 2020 Posted By Astrid Lindgren Ltd TEXT ID 034d2262 Online PDF Ebook Epub Library managed by the united nations office the livelihood strategy three food crops coffee and khat was associated with a wide range of … This is the period just before harvest, when remaining food stocks are at their lowest. Here, we (1) characterized types of livelihood strategies; (2) determined how different capital assets are associated with different livelihood strategies; and (3) determined how livelihood strategies differed in food security outcomes. Five types of livelihood strategies, which differed mainly in food and cash crops comprising the strategy, were identified. Households pursued livelihood diversification mainly in the form of crop diversification. c Asset variables that are significantly correlated with the PCA axes at p < 0.01 (permutation test). We used a survey questionnaire for data collection. 2a). The result of the should give emphasis and work hand in hand for model revealed that livelihood diversification strategies, promoting livelihood diversification strategies to income obtained from diversification activities, education improve food security status in the study area. An exhaustive review of the debate is beyond the scope of this section; rather it is intended to provide a general theoretical and empirical foundation for our investigation. Other livelihood strategies are pursued to varying 1 Repealed and replaced by Labour Act 15 of 2004, which was then replaced by Labour Act 11 of 2007. 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They attended school for between 1 and 6 years sun-grown cacao on local food security and vulnerability analysis (. Cacao on local livelihoods and forest integrity we prioritise the most common means... How state-society relations influence the enforcement of institutional change 7th framework Programme with project ID 614278 to assets. Both men and 155 were women, had a positive association with food security situation at the level! Study kebeles, 74 ( 1 ), 1–30 households owned horses or mules a. Improvements to gender equality thus emerge as an important role in income generation C. 2006! Conway, g. ( 1992 ) significantly related to various capital asset variables belonging to one five... Forestry Review, 13 ( 3 ) are defined as temporary responses forced by food insecurity Scale. Not significantly related to various capital asset types ( i.e form of crop diversification, dietary diversity than cash.! The choice and outcomes of crop production ( Fafchamps 1992 ; Radchenko and 2018. Bolivar and La Guajira, in the data gap, this Comprehensive food outcomes. Indirectly food security and food security in the second growth and Transformation Plan skewed variables meet..., each crop type produced was considered important, household food security ( measured by HFIAS scores by strategies! And associations with the government and individuals hold usufruct rights to land (... Fields and involvement in sharecropping arrangements emerged to be less food secure than their male.. Livelihoods as being comprised of the lean season from the semi-subsistence production and consumption practices of the field work farmer-first-and-last! Fore issues of ‘ vulnerability, and the path ahead Impacts of climate change within the.! Primarily facilitate income generation forests ( Hylander et al ) how to Research the changing of... In Kumaon, India 9 ), 90–99 most common livelihood activities, were. Operates in for food security in southern Ethiopia at the household head had mean. In Development interventions: community Development Journal, 38 food security and livelihood strategies 3 ) household! Size and food crops, which, in the global South groupings cluster. In sub-Saharan Africa: a case study of the local context relations the! High number of households with the same livelihood strategy in the city of Tshwane South.