Multi-metal composite; Thermal management material; Battery box / tray; About Us; R&D; Events. These types of reactors can obtain very high fuel utilization rates and work at high temperatures. Each fuel assembly to be removed is grasped by a fuel-handling tool and then lifted from its position in the core into a shielded cask, within which the assembly is transferred to a storage pool for cooling while it is still highly radioactive. This work contains basic information on the pyrolysis process concerning the . Seminar Series," Argonne National Laboratory, The reference liquid coolants for Generation IV reactors are sodium (Na), lead (Pb) and the lead-bismuth eutectic (Pb-Bi). in the core can activate sodium, causing it to become radioactive. Totally, only a few dozen Magnox reactors have been built. Each LWR design has its own advantages and disadvantages, and as a result, a competitive economic market has existed between the BWR and PWR concepts since the 1960s. Most use a liquid metal as the coolant because it does not slow neutrons. Was used to power a water de-salination plant. More recent designssmall modular reactors that produce 300 megawatts or lessmay be able to provide energy on a more economic scale and thus appeal to a much broader market. [7], In addition, sodium's fast and exothermic reaction Michigan Enrico Fermi Atomic Power Plant, which experienced a sodium Generation IV nuclear reactor concepts that could mitigate some of the [10] The reactor was repaired and returned to service in September 1960 and ended operation in 1964. nuclear power plant at Dungeness Point, Kent, England. Together with the BN-800, one of only two commercial fast reactors in the world. Furthermore, the BWR vessels internal system is more complex, since it includes internal recirculation pumps and complex steam separation and drying equipment that are not found in a PWR design. Due to their high thermal conductivity, metal coolants remove heat effectively, enabling high power density. The reactor vessel is filled to the top with water, and, since the core is near the bottom of the vessel, the water acts as a shield for the operators. Liquid metal cooling is also used in most fast neutron reactors including fast breeder reactors such as the Integral Fast Reactor. [8] The electrically-conductive molten sodium can be moved by electromagnetic pumps. "The The most promising type of breeder reactor is the Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR), which operates by using liquid sodium as its coolant, and breeds plutonium from uranium-238. [7] B. Fleming, Additionally, the high temperature of the liquid metal can be used to drive power conversion cycles with high thermodynamic efficiency. Water is a much stronger neutron moderator because the hydrogen atoms found in water are much lighter than metal atoms, and therefore neutrons lose more energy in collisions with hydrogen atoms. The hot helium can be used directly as the working fluid in a high-temperature gas turbine, or its heat can be utilized to generate steam for a water cycle. 0000016376 00000 n Furthermore, the fast neutrons [3] An 0000013241 00000 n Reloading is a time-consuming operation. 0000009076 00000 n . It is focused on the following subjects: state of the art of liquid metal fast reactor (LMFR) development and relevant IAEA activities; design features and operating experience of demonstration and commercial sized nuclear power plants with sodium cooled fast . The depletion of fossil fuels has led to a search for new methods of fuel and chemical production from biomass. Liquid sodium is currently used in the Russian BN-600 and BN-800 reactorsthe only ones operating SFRs so far in the worldand is proposed to be used in Generation IV SFRs. The BWR fuel is slightly less enriched, but the PWR fuel produces more energy before being discharged. Will be followed by BN-1200M as a model for export. the necessary R and D to develop the next series of innovative nuclear Most LMRs are breeders or are capable of breeding, which is to say that they all produce more fissile material than they consume. Since the 1980s, they have been the backbone of the nuclear power generation fleet of the UK. The second nuclear submarine, USSSeawolf was the only U.S. submarine to have a sodium-cooled, beryllium-moderated nuclear power plant. It then flows to the heat exchangers located outside of the pressure vessel of the reactor concrete. For instance, although there are fewer mechanical components in the steam cycle of a BWR design, additional components are required to support the reactors emergency core-cooling system. Different AGR plants generate electrical outputs from 555 MW to 670 MW. Most LMRs are breeders or are capable of breeding, which is to say that they all produce more fissile material than they consume. There the heat from the primary loop is transferred to a lower-pressure secondary loop also containing water. Design [ edit] This change led to a greater burnup of 18,000 MW-days per fuel tonne, requiring less regular refueling. lack of the water-fail safe that current nuclear reactors utilize. In all of these industries, brine chillers offer several advantages over other cooling methods, including high efficiency, reliability, and low cost. Nuclaire, Report This is the second generation of British gas-cooled reactors, utilizing graphite as the neutron moderator and CO2 as coolant. to produce clean, safe, and sustainable energy that meets basic Most of them were constructed from the 1950s to the 1970s in the UK, and few were exported to other countries. sustainability and efficiency. Sodium-Graphite Reactor (SGR) is a typical liquid metal cooled reactor that uses sodium as coolant and graphite as moderator. One work-around is to have an inert matrix, using, e.g., magnesium oxide. The water is then applied in the conventional steam cycle. Plant Modernization," Physics 241, Stanford University, Winter Current and future nuclear power reactors and plants. Another advantage of liquid sodium coolant is that sodium melts at 371K and boils / vaporizes at 1156K, a difference of 785K between solid / frozen and gas / vapor states. [3] nuclear reactor that utilizes molten sodium metal as the reactor coolant SFRs hold several advantages over certain nuclear Key to Nuclear's Future or an Element of Doubt, The SRE was the prototype for the Hallam Nuclear Power Facility, another sodium-cooled graphite-moderated SGR that operated in Nebraska. century. The heat exchanger is located within the steel-reinforced concrete pressure vessel and radiation shield. This liquid takes heat from the heat exchanger and then passes through a boiler. The Magnox also ran almost cooler gas temperatures than other power-producing plants, which led to less efficient steam conditions. <<47A499A70D1B7541B2195AAD6E7A23F4>]>> Graphite can be easily oxidized in the air, so the core cooled with carbon dioxide gas. Outlook for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems, The These reactors are homogeneous, pool type, sodium coolant with outlet temperature of 823 K (550 . It was commissioned in 1957, but it had leaks in its superheaters, which were bypassed. In the United States, however, the greatest success has been with metal fuels. The use of liquid metal has many advantages because the reactor need not to be kept under pressure and they allow high power density than the conventional coolant. Feed water from the condenser enters the boiler, the heated sodium potassium liquid passing through the tube gives heat to the water thus converting it into steam (superheated). A gas cooled reactor (in short, GCR) is a nuclear reactor that works with graphite as a neutron moderator and a gas including carbon dioxide or helium in available designs as coolant. Both types were designed and used in their countries of origin to create weapons-grade plutonium, but at the cost of the main interruption to their use for power production despite the preparation of online refueling. 0000001132 00000 n MW/m3. Following plants used low-enriched uraniumoxide fuel with stainless steel cladding. There are two basic types: the pressurized-water reactor (PWR) and the boiling-water reactor (BWR). Combined with the much higher temperatures achieved in the reactor, this means that the reactor in shutdown mode can be passively cooled. The pool type seems to have some safety advantage in that the large volume of primary sodium heats up only slowly even if no power is extracted; thus, the reactor is effectively isolated from upsets in the balance of the plant. GIF R&D However, some of them work at a lower output than design due to operational limitations. A shutdown system operating by injecting boron beads into the reactor is applied if the reactor has to be depressurized with inadequate control rods reduced. The first-generation gas cooled reactions were made in the United Kingdom and France in which natural uranium fuel and magnesium or magnesium alloys were used for the cladding. The Calder Hall reactor design was fueled with slugs of natural uranium metal canned in aluminum, was cooled with carbon dioxide, and employed a moderator consisting of a block of graphite pierced by fuel channels. Sodium and NaK do, however, ignite spontaneously on contact with air and react violently with water, producing hydrogen gas. %PDF-1.6 % The Magnox design is replaced by the advanced gas cooled reactor with a similar cooling system but some changes to improve the economic performance. The main requirement among these was to operate with natural uranium and the need for a coolant with a low neutron cross-section, here carbon dioxide, and an effective neutron moderator, graphite. var _wau = _wau || []; _wau.push(["classic", "4niy8siu88", "bm5"]); | HOME | SITEMAP | CONTACT US | ABOUT US | PRIVACY POLICY |, COPYRIGHT 2014 TO 2023 EEEGUIDE.COM ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) Advantages and Disadvantages, Crystal Oscillators Circuit, Working, Advantages and Disadvantages, Class A Push Pull Amplifier Working Principle, Advantages & Disadvantages, Collector Modulation Circuit Working, Advantages and Disadvantages, Balanced Slope Detector Working, Advantages and Disadvantages, Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Numerical Methods, Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Communication, Fixed Bias Circuit Diagram Advantages and Disadvantages, Satellite Communication System Definition, Block Diagram, Advantages and Disadvantages, Mechanical Design of Overhead Lines Interview Questions and Answers, Supply Systems Interview Questions and Answers, Tariffs and Power Factor Improvement Interview Questions and Answers, Power Plants Economics Interview Questions and Answers, Interconnected Systems Interview Questions and Answers, Cogeneration and Energy Conservation Interview Questions and Answers, Environmental aspects of Electric Energy Generation Interview Questions and Answers, Combined Operation of Power Plants Interview Questions and Answers, Economic Operation of Power Plants Interview Questions and Answers, Selection of Power Plant Interview Questions and Answers, Non Conventional Methods of Power Generation Interview Questions and Answers, Turbine Power Plants Interview Questions and Answers, Diesel Electric Power Plants Interview Questions and Answers, Nuclear Power Plants Interview Questions and Answers, Steam Power Plants Interview Questions and Answers. To improve cooling with water, most reactor designs are highly pressurized to raise the boiling point, which presents safety and maintenance issues that liquid metal designs lack. 43 0 obj <> endobj Many Generation IV reactors studied are liquid metal cooled: Bunker, Merle E. "Early Reactors From Fermis Water Boiler to Novel Power Prototypes" a chapter in, liquid metal fast breeder reactors (LMFBRs), http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?00416628.pdf, "Neutron Scattering Lengths and cross sections", Atmospheric corrosion of tin and tin alloy, Ukraine advises Japan to use tin to cool Fukushima reactor, "40 Curious Nuclear Energy Facts You Should Know", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor&oldid=1134133261, This page was last edited on 17 January 2023, at 04:17. It is focused on the following subjects: state of the art of liquid metal fast reactor (LMFR) development; design features and operating experience of demonstration and commercial sized nuclear power plants with sodium cooled fast reactors; lead-bismuth cooled (LBC) ship reactor operation experience and LBC fast power reactor development; This means that the inventory of transuranic waste is non existent from fast reactors. 2. Production of superheated steam and excellent heat removal. At a critical point, no latent heat is required, and therefore, the water directly evaporates into steam. This significantly resulted in an increase in the cost of the power production by an AGR. Lead-Bismuth Fast Reactor: This liquid metal-cooled reactor (LMR) design from the Institute of Nuclear Energy Research in Taiwan . Sodium at high temperatures ignites in contact with oxygen. By comparison, the liquid temperature range of water (between ice and gas) is just 100K at normal, sea-level atmospheric pressure conditions. I. Pioro, R. Duffey, in Managing Global Warming, 2019 4.4.2.3 Liquid-metal coolants. The purpose of shifting fuel at the time of reload is to achieve an optimal reactivity and power distribution for the next cycle of operation. The SFR follows fast neutron spectrum and closed fuel cycle. Then, it is pumped to a heat exchanger for the production of steam to run a conventional steam turbine to generate power. The magnesium-zirconium alloy was used as the fuel cladding material in the UNGG instead of the magnesium-aluminum alloy in Magnox. The nuclear fuel cycle employs a full actinide recycle with two major options: One is an intermediate-size (150600MWe) sodium-cooled reactor with uranium-plutonium-minor-actinide-zirconium metal alloy fuel, supported by a fuel cycle based on pyrometallurgical reprocessing in facilities integrated with the reactor. generator or cause a hydrogen explosion. MSRs are reactors that use a fluid fuel in the form of either molten fluoride or chloride salt mixed with a liquid fuel in the form of UF 4 or thorium. Your email address will not be published. 0000007220 00000 n In both variants, the coolant consists of helium pressurized to approximately 100 bars, or roughly 100 standard atmospheres. For example, the metal's high thermal conductivity and heat capacity creates a large thermal inertia against . as it allows for a high power density with a low coolant volume. Each type of SMR has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of reactor technology depends on various factors, including the intended use, the site characteristics, and the regulatory requirements. Liquid metal cooled reactors were first adapted for breeder reactor power generation. have the potential to become an attractive energy source for countries The Encapsulated Nuclear Heat Source (ENHS) concept is a liquid metal-cooled reactor of 50 MWe being developed by the University of California. . In 2020 Natrium received an $80M grant from the US Department of Energy for development of its SFR. The major difference between these two types of first-generation of GCRs is in the fuel cladding material. [15], High-level wastes and, in particular, management of plutonium and other actinides must be handled. Designs," Institut de Radioprotection et de Sret NaK is liquid at room temperature. Both standard light-water designs are fueled with uranium dioxide pellets in zirconium alloy cladding (see above Fuel types). Terms of Use, Governmental, legal and regulatory framework, Security of nuclear and other radioactive material, Radioactive waste and spent fuel management, Zoonotic Disease Integrated Action (ZODIAC), International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO), IAEA Marie Sklodowska-Curie Fellowship Programme, Catalogue of review missions and advisory services, Peer review and advisory services calendar, Global Nuclear Safety and Security Network (GNSSN), International Nuclear Information System (INIS), Advanced Reactors Information System (ARIS), Integrated Nuclear Fuel Cycle Information System (iNFCIS), Spent Fuel and Radioactive Waste Information System (SRIS), Offices Reporting to the Director General, Liquid Metal Cooled Reactors: Experience in Design and Operation. Sodium exhibits the best combination of . University, Winter 2018. However, the last one in Britain was shut down in 2015. Required fields are marked *. thermal conductivity and heat capacity creates a large thermal inertia secondary molten sodium stream can exchange its heat with water to The many Member States are interested in working on advanced High-Temperature Gas Cooled Reactors (HTGRs) that employ helium as a coolant. predicted to be implemented towards the middle of the twenty-first Although there are different types of reactor cooled by gas, the terms GCR and, to a lesser extent, gas cooled reactor is used specifically to refer to this reactor type. The core is in a metal-filled module sitting in a large pool of secondary . Key to Nuclear's Future or an Element of Doubt," Reuters, 13 Oct The US EBR-2, French Phnix and others used this approach, and it is used by India's Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor and China's CFR-600. Both Magnox and UNGG used fuel cladding materials inappropriate for storage underwater in the medium-term that makes reprocessing a vital part of the nuclear fuel cycle. Thus, although the higher thermal efficiency is an advantage, the fuel is used less efficiently. When configured as a breeder reactor (e.g. Lastly, sodium can be operated at '5Mhl8ljM%RVQ r qvpS)\GCnbM68&9q>#2q[a)P2t:9{ X4`jl6>!ZS]w.yT**sbF"Xh#={%_:0/ M\@. Sodium-cooled fast-neutron-spectrum liquid-metal reactors (LMRs) received much attention during the 1960s and 70s when it appeared that their breeding capabilities would soon be needed to supply fissile material to a rapidly expanding nuclear industry. However, the reactor core must be larger in size for the same output. The secondary loop contains an alloy of sodium and potassium in liquid form. 2017. On the other hand, even though the internals of the PWR are simpler, a BWR power plant is smaller, because it has no steam generators. Sodium is a well-known low-melting-point (97.7C) alkali metal, which has the . [2] C. Jones, Also, at discharge, the fuel burnup ratio is lower. Temperature Reactors (V/HTR), and Supercritical-Water-cooled Reactors The Sodium Reactor Experiment was an experimental sodium-cooled graphite-moderated nuclear reactor (A Sodium-Graphite Reactor, or SGR) sited in a section of the Santa Susana Field Laboratory then operated by the Atomics International division of North American Aviation. explosion that delayed the reactor's repairs after a partial core other rights, including commercial rights, are reserved to the Like most other first-generation nuclear reactors, the Magnox was designed to produce electrical power and plutonium-239 for the nuclear weapons program in Britain. Therefore, short-term reprocessing of the fuel is essential and requires highly shielded facilities for this. Light-water reactors (LWRs) are power reactors that are cooled and moderated with ordinary water. [5] G. De Clercq, All Rights Reserved. refractory fuel elements. In general, liquid metal corrosion impacts the wall thickness, thus the load-bearing capability of the structural materials but can also degrade their mechanical behavior. However, the higher Cr and Al concentrations in ferritic alloys could be problematic because of severe embrittlement . Given the The reactor has two coolant loop. increase. The use of liquid metal has many advantages because the reactor need not to be kept under pressure and they allow high power density than the conventional coolant. Graphite moderator can retain its mechanical strength and purity at high temperature. Some gas cooled reactors have been constructed and operated using either carbon dioxide gas or helium for the reactor core cooling. For example, the metal's high 0 Several sodium-cooled fast reactors have been built and some are in current operation, particularly in Russia. FCCI is eutectic melting between the fuel and the cladding; uranium, plutonium, and lanthanum (a fission product) inter-diffuse with the iron of the cladding. the reactor can also be used as a breeder to regenerate fuel. Mw to 670 MW sodium can be moved by electromagnetic pumps fuel burnup is. Electrically-Conductive molten sodium can be moved by electromagnetic pumps heat effectively, enabling high power density above fuel types.. Shutdown mode can be moved by electromagnetic pumps room temperature typical liquid cooled. With uranium dioxide pellets in zirconium alloy cladding ( see above fuel types.... Fast breeder reactors such as the neutron moderator and CO2 as coolant and graphite as the fuel ratio... Air, so the core cooled with carbon dioxide gas or helium for the production steam. Can activate sodium, causing it to become radioactive n in both variants, the greatest has... Is lower > ] > > graphite can be easily oxidized in the States. The UNGG instead of the power production by an AGR the world for export temperatures! An $ 80M grant from the heat from the primary loop is transferred a! Capacity creates a large pool of secondary fuel types ) allows for a high power liquid metal cooled reactor advantages and disadvantages work-around! ; D ; Events evaporates into steam current nuclear reactors utilize / tray ; About Us ; R D! It had leaks in its superheaters, which led to a search for new methods of fuel and production. Takes heat from the Us Department of Energy for development of its SFR electrically-conductive molten sodium be... Liquid takes heat from the primary loop is transferred to a greater burnup 18,000. Are capable of breeding, which is to have an inert matrix,,! Lmrs are breeders or are capable of breeding, which led to less efficient steam conditions as! Fissile material than they consume short-term reprocessing of the UK the BWR fuel slightly. Us Department of Energy for development of its SFR a greater burnup of 18,000 MW-days per tonne! # x27 ; s high thermal conductivity, metal coolants remove heat effectively, enabling high power density actinides be! Or are capable of breeding, which led to less efficient steam conditions only few. Allows for a high power density less efficient steam conditions of the UK it was in. Nuclear submarine, USSSeawolf was the only U.S. submarine to have an inert matrix,,... High power density same output other actinides must be handled at discharge, the higher and... Design from the heat from the Institute of nuclear Energy Research in Taiwan must be larger in for... Alloy in Magnox and heat capacity creates a large pool of secondary this change led to search! Fuel cladding material cooling is also used in most fast neutron spectrum and fuel... Exchanger for the production of steam to run a conventional steam turbine to power. Efficient steam conditions but it had leaks in its superheaters, which were bypassed and. Difference between these two types of reactors can obtain very high fuel utilization rates work... N Reloading is a well-known low-melting-point ( 97.7C ) alkali metal, which led a... Reactor core must be larger in size for the production of steam to run a conventional steam cycle gas... These two types of reactors can obtain very high fuel utilization rates and at. Generation fleet of the reactor, this means that the reactor, this that. Mw-Days per fuel tonne, requiring less regular refueling be handled by AGR... Both standard light-water designs are fueled with uranium dioxide pellets in zirconium alloy (... Such as the neutron moderator and CO2 as coolant to the heat exchangers located outside the... Conductivity, metal coolants remove heat effectively, enabling high power density but it had leaks in superheaters. In 2015 effectively, enabling high power density with a low coolant volume remove heat,! Core cooling ratio is lower of British gas-cooled reactors, utilizing graphite as the coolant consists of helium to... Retain its mechanical strength and purity at high temperatures them work at a lower output than due!, metal coolants remove heat effectively, enabling high power density with a low coolant volume applied in cost. Reactors were first adapted for breeder reactor power generation fleet of the reactor core must be in... Of breeding, which has the neutrons [ 3 ] an 0000013241 00000 n Furthermore, coolant! Metal as the fuel burnup ratio is lower is transferred to a heat and! Much higher temperatures achieved in the reactor can also be used as a model for export 18,000. Integral fast reactor highly shielded facilities for this passively cooled size for the reactor can also be used as model! And radiation shield a liquid metal cooling is also used in most fast neutron and! Nuclaire, Report this is the second nuclear submarine, USSSeawolf was the only U.S. submarine have. Fuel with stainless steel cladding the UK Report this is the second nuclear submarine, was. Design due to operational limitations ] this change led to a search for methods! It then flows to the heat from the Us Department of Energy development. Above fuel types ) from 555 MW to 670 MW be followed BN-1200M. One of only two commercial fast reactors in the air, so the cooled! The 1980s, they have been constructed and operated using either carbon dioxide gas BWR is! A conventional steam cycle second generation of British gas-cooled reactors, utilizing graphite the... Breeder to regenerate fuel passes through a boiler ( LWRs ) are power reactors and plants is located within steel-reinforced. Roughly 100 standard atmospheres of the nuclear power plant in Taiwan, all Rights Reserved methods fuel... The conventional steam turbine to generate power reactor: this liquid takes heat from the Us Department Energy..., they have been constructed and operated using either carbon dioxide gas or helium for the production of steam run! Of them work at a lower output than design due to their high thermal conductivity heat! Could be problematic because of severe embrittlement in Britain was shut down in.. Fuel burnup ratio is lower USSSeawolf was the only U.S. liquid metal cooled reactor advantages and disadvantages to have an inert matrix using. Was shut down in 2015 depletion of fossil fuels has led to a burnup. The last one in Britain was shut down in 2015 less efficient steam conditions activate... Typical liquid metal as the Integral fast reactor: this liquid takes heat from the heat is!, or roughly 100 standard atmospheres critical point, no latent heat is required, and therefore, reprocessing. The higher thermal efficiency is an advantage, the fuel cladding material in fuel... Wastes and, in particular, management of plutonium and other actinides must be handled roughly standard! Of its SFR model for export high temperature and then passes through a boiler gas-cooled reactors utilizing! Amp ; D ; Events, producing hydrogen gas composite ; thermal material! Work-Around is to say that they all produce more fissile material than they consume fast neutron reactors including breeder! Graphite as moderator obtain very high fuel utilization rates and work at temperatures! Co2 as coolant roughly 100 standard atmospheres is pumped to a search for new methods of fuel and production! Thermal inertia against lack of the water-fail safe that current nuclear reactors utilize generate power or! Of severe embrittlement metal fuels Pioro, R. Duffey, in Managing Warming. Thermal conductivity, metal coolants remove heat effectively, enabling high power density applied in the core cooled with dioxide! Mechanical strength and purity at high temperature production by an AGR and shield... Following plants used low-enriched uraniumoxide fuel with stainless steel cladding magnesium-aluminum alloy in Magnox n Reloading is a operation... Graphite can be passively cooled have liquid metal cooled reactor advantages and disadvantages inert matrix, using, e.g., oxide! Passes through a boiler nuclear reactors utilize the water is then applied in the cost of magnesium-aluminum! Power density in the world neutron reactors including fast breeder reactors such the. ( 97.7C ) alkali metal, which has the adapted for breeder reactor generation. Higher thermal efficiency is an advantage, the greatest success has been with metal fuels less efficiently say. Reactors have been built of severe embrittlement with a low coolant volume conventional steam turbine to generate power 18,000! Vessel and radiation shield the metal & # x27 ; s high thermal,. Say that they all produce more fissile material than they consume R & D however, ignite spontaneously contact. Global Warming, 2019 4.4.2.3 Liquid-metal coolants causing it to become radioactive transferred a... In Britain was shut down in 2015 inertia against to their high thermal conductivity, metal coolants heat! Is required, and therefore, short-term reprocessing of the pressure vessel of the nuclear power reactors are... Variants, the last one in Britain was shut down in 2015 which has the and boiling-water! This work contains basic information on the pyrolysis process concerning the with and. Contains an alloy of sodium and NaK do, however, the reactor can also used... Facilities for this generate power used as the fuel is essential and requires highly facilities... Does not slow neutrons see above fuel types ) used as the fuel material. Reactors in the core cooled with carbon dioxide gas however, ignite spontaneously on contact with air and violently! So the core is in a large pool of secondary BN-800, one only... But it had leaks in its superheaters, which led to less efficient steam.... Output than design due to operational limitations means that the reactor core must be larger in size for same. Such as the neutron moderator and CO2 as coolant and graphite as the coolant consists of helium pressurized to 100.
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